'Uchtred The Bold’: The Real Uhtred of Bebbanburg

The BBC’s latest historical drama offering, The Last Kingdom, is only two episodes in but is already gaining a fan following, including myself. Based on the Saxon Stories series by Bernard Cornwell, the series takes place in 9th century Britain, a land divided, and dominated by the Danes. The main protagonist, Uhtred of Bebbanburg, is partly based on a real Anglo Saxon man, Uchtred or Uhtred the Bold.

Vicious Vikings

Origins of Anglo Saxon settlers

In the fifth century, Britain was divided by loosely defined borders, the communities ruled by chieftains or kings. After the Romans left for good in 408 AD, the Britons faced wave after wave of invaders, the Anglo-Saxons being among them. After failed invasion attempts during the 4th century, they succeeded and settled in around 450 AD. Britain was then split into regions, known as The Heptarchy, from the Greek hepta for seven, and arkho, ‘to rule’. The first mention of these kingdoms comes from a 12th century manuscript, Historia Anglorum. These regions were Mercia, East Anglia, Essex, Sussex, Kent, Northumbria and Wessex, each with their own King. The Vikings first invaded in 793 AD.

Origins of Viking settlers

By the 9th century, eviscerated by the Danes, only Wessex remained solely under Saxon rule when the story takes place, led by King Aethelred (865–871). His brother Alfred, however, is the main focus. A pious Christian, and his brother’s heir, he is intent on uniting the country; one England, worshipping one God, under one king. He became king of Wessex in 871 on the death of  King Aethelred, and would later become known as Alfred ‘the Great’. His brother Aethelred had left two young sons, Aethelhelm and Aethelwold. However, the brothers had agreed that whoever outlived the other would inherit the property that King Aethelwulf, their father, had left them both in his will, and thus the throne (this agreement is not mentioned in the episode). By translating the works of Bede, Alfred would begin to create a country that knew its history, and which was governed by unified laws and justice for the first time since the Romans departed. But it would not be him, but his grandson, that would be crowned the first king of England.

The Heptarchy

Fact and fiction

In the series, ten year old Uhtred Uhtredson, born Osbert, becomes ealdorman (the equivalent of an earl) of Bebbanburg in the kingdom Northumbria after losing his elder brother and soon after, his father, in the struggle against the Danes. During the battle that killed his father, young Uhtred is kidnapped and taken as a slave by Ragnar ‘the fearless’, a Danish warlord. Admiring his fighting spirit, Ragnar refuses Aelfric, Uhtred’s uncle, in his attempt to buy him back, and raises him as his own, as a Dane. Uhtred embraces their lifestyle and beliefs, casting aside his Christian upbringing.

His namesake, Uhtred ‘the Bold’ of Northumbria, was the ealdorman of Banburg, what we now know as Bamburgh, from 1006 till his death in 1016. Uhtred’s birth date is unclear; various sources claim 971, or 989. He is recorded as helping to move the remains of St Cuthbert in the year 995, which would make 971 seem the most likely, putting his age at the time at 24. He was born to Waltheof of Bamburgh, the son of Osulf I, the first recorded high-reeve (believed to be a deputy to an ealdorman) of Bamburgh. His is a Scandinavian name, which suggests Viking heritage. His mother appears to be unknown. At this point, Ethelred II ‘the Unready’ (978–1016) was king of England.

Bamburgh Castle

Little is known of Uhtred's earlier years. As aforementioned, he is recorded by Symeon of Durham, a chronicler and monk at Durham Priory, in his Historia Eccleiae Dunelmensis as helping the monks move relics from Chester-le-Street to Durham in 995, and clearing a site for the cathedral. One Bishop Aldhun founded the cathedral, and Uhtred would marry his daughter, Ecgfrida around this time. In doing so he inherited a portion of church lands in Durham. He and Ecgfrida would have two children together, Eldred and Eawulf. In 1006, Durham was taken under siege by Malcolm II of Scotland. Uhtred's ageing father left the defence to him. Uhtred rallied men from all over Bernicia (Northern Northumbria, consisting of Northumberland and Durham, also Berwickshire and East Lothian, now belonging to Scotland) and Yorkshire. It was a heavy defeat for the Scots, their severed heads displayed on Durham's walls. Malcolm however lived. As a reward for his actions, Uhtred was appointed ealdorman of Northumbria by King Ethelred in 1007, while his father still lived. Aelfhelm of York, who had taken no action during the siege, was murdered on the king's orders. Uhtred then succeed Aelfhelm as ealdorman of York, uniting northern and southern Northumbria.

In 1016, Uhtred faced King Malcolm once more. The Scottish king allied himself with Owain the Bald, King of Strathclyde. Together they razed much of Northumbria to the ground, and faced Uhtred's local force at the Battle of Carham, which took place south of the River Tweed. Symeon of Durham describes the battle:

"In the year of our Lord's incarnation ten hundred and eighteen, while Cnut ruled the kingdom of the Angles, a comet appeared for thirty nights to the people of Northumbria, a terrible presage of the calamity by which that province was about to be desolated. For, shortly afterwards, nearly the whole population, from the river Tees to the Tweed, and their borders, were cut off in a conflict in which they were engaged with a countless multitude of Scots at Carrun."

It was Uhtred's forces this time who suffered heavy losses. By this point, parts of north Northumbria had been reclaimed by the Scots. The date of the battle is disputed, between 1016 and 1018. Uhtred however, is believed to have been murdered in 1016, but it is also claimed that he was killed in the battle. Bishop Aldhun, his father in law, is said to have died of grief after hearing of his death. This seems slightly odd, considering that in 1007 Uhtred dismissed his first wife Ecgfrida after roughly 12 years of marriage, in order to marry Sige, the daughter of Styr, a rich York citizen. In doing so he consolidated his place as ealdorman of York, and fathered a further two sons, Eadulf and Gospatric. All did not go to plan however, as the marriage did not sit well with Styr's enemy, Thurbrand the Hold. This leads us onto Uhtred's supposed murder. When Sweyn Forkbeard landed his army in 1013, many of the nobles, disillusioned with Ethelred, submitted to him, Uhtred included. Sweyn was declared King of England, but his reign was short. After he died in 1014, Elthelred returned. In a bid to win back Uhtred's support, he offered his daughter Aelfgifu to Uhtred as his bride. He accepted, divorcing Sige. Women of the era were often seen as 'peace weavers', and marriages such as Uhtred's were common. When in 1015, Sweyn's son Cnut made a claim to the throne, Uhtred of course sided with his brother in law, Ethelred's son Edmund Ironside. But Cnut had allied with Thurbrand. Cnut's forces were too large, and Uhtred was forced to submit to him as king. He attempted to negotiate his position, and was summoned to a meeting with the new King Cnut. On his way, he and 40 of his men were murdered by Thurbrand, with Cnut's consent. Uhtred's brother, Eadwulf, inherited Bamburgh, but Cnut created Norwegian Eric of Hlathir, his brother in law and ally, ealdorman of southern Northumbria. North and south, united under Uhtred, were now separate again. Uhtred's murder triggered a blood feud, and Uhtred's son Ealdred would eventually avenge his father by killing Thurbrand, only to later be murdered by Thurbrand's son Carl. Years later, in 1070 Ealdred's grandson would avenge him by having Carl's sons and grandsons killed.

Uhtred's sons would continue to rule Bernicia; Ealdred until his murder in 1038, and Eadwulf until his death in 1041. It then passed to his son, Osulf, until 1067, when he was killed. Uhtred’s third marriage produced a daughter, Ealdgyth,(Edith) who married Maldred, the brother of Duncan I of Scotland. Their son, Gospatric, was Earl of Northumbria from 1068 to 1072. (Another possibility is that Gospatric was Uhtred's youngest son, born to his second wife Sige. A third possibility is that he was a grandson of Ecgfrida, through her second marriage). With battles, changing political alliances and murder, the life of Uhtred the Bold was just as dramatic as that of his fictional counterpart.


Sources

http://www.royal.gov.uk/HistoryoftheMonarchy/KingsandQueensofEngland/TheAnglo-Saxonkings/Sweyn.aspx

http://www.englishmonarchs.co.uk/macalpin_15.htm

http://cybergata.com/roots/1660.htm

http://historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistoriesResponsive.asp?historyid=ab86

http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/trail/conquest/wessex_kings/birth_england_wessex_04.shtml

A Biographical Dictionary of Dark Age Britain: England, Scotland and Wales, C.500-c. 1050, Ann Williams, Alfred P. Smyth, D.P Kirby, 2014

Battle Trails of Northumbria, Clive Kristen, 2004

Bloodfeud: Murder And Revenge In Anglo Saxon England, Richard Fletcher, 2004

The Anglo Saxon Chronicles, translated by Rev. James Ingram, 1823.

Horrible Histories: Vicious Vikings, Terry Deary.

History of Britain by Simon Schama, documentary.

Something Wicked This Way Comes: A Brief History Of Halloween

Everyone loves a good scare; Halloween is one of the most popular holidays of the year, one which many look forward to, young and old. Today we associate it with trick or treat, dressing up and transforming your home into a haunted mansion. There are countless films and stories about it; it is firmly embedded in our culture. Some may know that the holiday and many of its traditions have Pagan origins, not a modern American import as many believe. So how did it come to be what it is today?

Celtic Roots

The earliest form of the celebration is the Pagan festival of Samhain (pronounced sah-vin, or sow-in), originating in the Celtic countries of Scotland, Ireland, Wales, Brittany, Isle of Mann, and Cornwall. Translated, Samhain means 'summers end', and does not refer to the a Pagan god of death, a common misconception. The festival marked the coming of the darker half of the year, when the nights began to draw in. The Celts saw the year in only two seasons, summer and winter. Samhain is held by some as the New Year of the old Celtic calendar, and is still celebrated by modern day Pagan religions. Summer is over, the harvest is done for the year, the trees bare of their leaves. It all symbolises ending. Other Pagans celebrate the new year with a beginning rather than an end, at Imbolc, usually on February 1st, marking the beginning of spring and the farming season. ’Beltain’ was Samhain’s summertime equivalent, marking the beginning of summer.

Samhain was a 'feast of the dead', a time when they believed the veil between our world and the next became thin, allowing the living and the dead to mix. It was a time to remember and celebrate the dead, and reflect on the year that had passed in preparation for the new one. The celebrations would begin on the 31st, and continue until sunrise the following day. A literal 'feast for the dead' would often take place, in which a dinner would be set out for dead, and people would give an offering from their own plate to those of the deceased. A variation on this is the ’dumb feast’, which would be held in silence. Food was often left on doorsteps and at altars for the 'wandering dead' who had slipped through the veil, guided by candles in windows. Costumes were born out of this, as in order to avoid being recognised by the wandering spirits, people would disguise themselves as ghoulish creatures to confuse them. Mumming shows were also performed in later years. (Robert A. Davis argues that no sources attribute these celebrations to the remembrance of the dead, but that could perhaps be explained by the general lack of written documents of this period, long before the printing press, when the majority of the population were illiterate. Theses traditions were born of and continued by folklore.) Bonfires were lit, originally termed ’bone fires’, as the bones from the feat would be thrown it. Also thrown into the flames were stones, carved with names, and then retrieved in the morning. The condition of the stone would determine your fortunes for the coming year.

The tradition of vegetable carving began here too, likely in Ireland, but not with pumpkins as we are familiar with today. Instead turnips were used, carved into ghoulish faces to look like ’friendly spirits’, and ward away evil. Pumpkins later became prevalent in the US, where pumpkins grew abundantly, when 19th century British and European immigrants to the states discovered they were easier to carve. In fact, this year, English Heritage are encouraging a revival of the turnip tradition, owing to a poor pumpkin harvest. The term ’Jack-O’-Lantern’ possibly comes from Irish folklore, when a man named Stingy Jack attempted to trick Satan. The story of how he tricked him varies, but in each variation, too sinful for Heaven and barred from Hell, Jack is doomed to roam earth eternally with nothing but a burning ember inside a hollow turnip. Another possible origin is that they are named for the strange lights that floated over peat bogs and through woodlands, popular in Scottish folklore, so named Jack O’ Lanterns, or ’Will-o-the-wisp’ (if you've seen Disney’s 'Brave', you'll know what those are!). These were a type of fae, enticing travellers to stray from their path.

A dark festival by nature, Samhain also had an even darker side. Every seven years, the festival of 'Tara' coincided with Samhain. Tara was also the location of the High Kings court. On this day, Irish kings would be sacrificed. The tradition led to two Irish kings abdicating before the end of their seven years, and thus avoiding death. But the sacrifice would still be done, using a ’mock king’ in his place. During the four days of Tara, the old king would be killed, and the successor inaugurated and celebrated. The king was killed either with a priests spear, ’anointed with a witches brew’ ie. poisoned, or by ’fairy folk’, people in costume who would beset the king. The first Irish king to accept Christianity was Muiercetach, but he could not escape the ritual after he left his wife, taking in a ’witch woman’. Eventually, masqueraders set his house alight, killing him, on Samhain in 530 AD. Tales of such sacrifice are common in Celtic (and Norse) folklore, and is in a way echoed today in Guy Fawkes night bonfires. 

From Pagan to Christian: Medieval Halloween

In around the 7th and 8th centuries AD, the Catholic Church cleverly began to adapt these pagan feast days into their own. Samhain eventually became All Hallows' Eve, preceding or All Saint’s Day on the 1st of November, both days that were already sacred to the Pagans. Pope Boniface IV first established All Martyr’s Day on May 13th 609 AD. This was later moved by Pope Gregory III in 835 AD to 1st November, and expanded to include all saints as well as martyrs. In 1000 AD, it was expanded even further, with the introduction of All Soul's Day on Novermber 2nd. These three feasts, All Hallows' Eve, All Saint's Day and All Souls Day were known as Hallowmass. By the 9th century, Christianity was finally sweeping the Celtic lands, having ridden the wave of conquest across Europe waged by the Roman Empire centuries before.

Bobbing for apples dates from the Roman Invasion of Britain, bringing with them apple trees, representing the goddess of fruit trees Pomona. An apple sliced in half was used by women to predict their marriage fortunes. This is where bobbing comes in. Unmarried women would try to bite the apples, which were floating or hanging from string. The first to make a bite would be the next one allowed to marry. Sometimes, ladies would aim for a specific apple, etched with the name of a partner. Catch it in one bite and they would marry; two bites, she and her intended would court, but their love would not last. Three, and it was not meant to be. Apple bobbing is still done today, though without the romantic element. Its even made its way into a novel; Agatha Christie capitalised on Halloween's popularity in her novel Hallow’een Party, in which a young girl is drowned while playing the game. 

Despite the Christianisation of Halloween, many of the pagan traditions persisted into the medieval age, and new ones formed. ’Trick Or Treat’ is often believed to be an American invention, but though it has been popular there for over a century, it too has more ancient roots. In medieval Britain and Europe on All Souls Day, cakes or pastries would be offered called Soul Cakes, given by the wealthy to those less fortunate who would visit their houses. The cakes would be given in exchange for the promise that the recipients would pray for the dead of that household. The tradition was known as ’Souling’, and later developed into something more akin to modern trick or treating, where children would go door to door asking for food, ale, or coin. In Ireland and Scotland, ’guising’ was popular, and including costumes like today. Rather than offering prayer, they would sing, tell jokes, or something similar, the ’trick’ before the treat. Costumes were also used by poorer churches who, being unable to afford relics, would put on a procession through the churchyard with parishioners dressed as their patron saint, along with others dressed as angels and devils. Halloween in the Middle Ages was not associated with witchcraft, as you might expect. Witches were more associated with Walpurgisnacht or Hexennacht, ’Witches Night’, of German origin and celebrated in April. It is only in more recent times that it has become a witches holiday. 

Victorian Halloween

In early 19th century America, Halloween was not yet widely popular, being opposed in colonial New England owing to their Puritan beliefs. In the southern colonies however it was more popular, where various European ethnic groups mixed along with American Indians, resulting in uniquely American variations on the traditions. They included celebrating the harvest, tales of the dead, ghost stories and dancing, much like the Celtic forerunner. It wasn't until the second half of the century that Halloween took off in America, in some part encouraged by the influx of Irish immigrants escaping the potato famine. They brought with them the traditional costumes and trick or treating. 

Meanwhile in Victorian Britain, there was a huge trend for belief in the supernatural in the latter half of the 1800's. 'Memento Mori’ was common in the age, a rather morbid preoccupation with remembering the dead. Photographs were taken of the dead, in the belief that the film had the ability to capture something of their spirit that the eye could not see. Seances were popular, in which Sherlock Holmes writer Arthur Conan Doyle was a firm believer. He even believed in fairies, quite ironic when you consider how logical his famous character is. Queen Victoria herself took part in an annual procession at her Scottish retreat of Balmoral. But despite all of this, Halloween celebrations had depleted somewhat, owing to the rise of the Protestant church. Charles Dickens, returning from America, soon penned A Christmas Carol, famously full of ghosts. The Victorians were fascinated by such stories, with 'Penny Dreadfuls', cheap Gothic-inspired serials filled with illustrations, proving popular with the growing semi literate population. Gothic characters from the era like Dracula and Frankenstein’s Monster now make popular costumes. The divination aspect of Halloween was again in focus in this century, the tricks to predict marriage prospects ever popular. Postcards of the age show the preoccupation with romance; they feature friendly images rather than spooky ones, with the emphasis often on love.

Halloween in the 20th century

Halloween today is predominantly secular, with little reverence for the dead taking place. By the 1920's, in the age of the Bright Young People, lavish Halloween parties were common. The holiday had shifted to fun from fear, with rowdy Mischief Night pranks by teens and young people becoming an issue. This worsened during the Great Depression, with the pranks escalating into violence on occasion, likely driven by hard times. The onset of WWII and sugar rationing halted trick or treating in its tracks. By the 1950's, an effort was made to contain the celebrations, holding parties in town halls .The violence had made way for a festival that was targeted mainly toward children. After the post-war baby boom, and with sugar off the ration, it was a lucrative venture for businesses, cashing in on sales of sweets. Today a quarter of the sweets bought in the US are sold around Halloween. By the 60's and 70's, it was more commercial, with decorations becoming widely available, and costumes began to include TV characters as well as just spooky incarnations. Horror films gained popularity, but the demons were often human, not other worldy. The 80's saw adults joining in once again. Nowadays television series like ’Supernatural’ and ’American Horror Story’ prove that interest in the supernatural never goes away. Halloween is now the second biggest holiday after Christmas, with spending averaging $6 billion a year.

Sources:

http://www.ibtimes.com/samhain-2014-3-things-you-need-know-about-pagan-festival-1715741 http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/paganism/holydays/samhain.shtml https://wicca.com/celtic/akasha/samhainlore.htm http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2015/oct/26/go-back-to-halloweens-roots-and-carve-a-turnip-charity-suggests http://www.history.com/topics/halloween/history-of-halloween http://www.history.com/news/ask-history/what-is-bobbing-for-apples?cmpid=Social_FBPAGE_HISTORY_20151025_262381295&linkId=18240502 

The A-Z Of Witchcraft - Michael D. Bailey (Scarecrow Press, 2009)  
The Ritual Killing Of Irish Kings - C.F Dalton (Folklore journal) 
A Witches Bible - Janet and Stewart Farrar.  
McBain's Etymological Dictionary of the Gaelic Language
Escaping Through Flames: Halloween As A Christian Festival - Robert A. Davis
Halloween: From Pagan Ritual To Party Night - Nicholas Rogers