Death Keeps His Court: The Downfall and Death of King Richard II

While this Sunday marks St Valentine's Day for those more romantically inclined, for me it marks a rather more solemn occasion; the death of King Richard II. The king, having been deposed by his cousin Henry Bolingbroke the previous September, died a prisoner in Pontefract Castle on February 14th 1400, just over a month after his 33rd birthday. 

The events leading up to his death began with the death of another important figure; the king's uncle, John of Gaunt (Ghent). Gaunt was the second most powerful man in the kingdom, and as such, was as much reviled as he was respected. Amidst unpopularity and early fears that he would take the throne, and though he and the king sometimes disagreed, Gaunt was nevertheless a more loyal supporter than the other nobles. He was notably absent from the 'Merciless Parliament' of 1388, during which the Lord's Appellant, a group of nobles including another of Richard's uncles,  Thomas of Gloucester, tried the king's closest associates for treason. However, included in this group was Gaunt's eldest son and Richard's cousin, Henry Bolingbroke, then the Earl of Derby. Of similar age, the two boys reportedly hid together during the Peasant's Revolt. Two very different men, their childhood friendship did not survive into adulthood. The two quarrelled often, and understandably, Richard did not take Henry's betrayal lightly, though he did not act immediately. 

Fast forward almost ten years to 1397, and Richard is a changed man. Without his wife at his side to pacify him, Richard's rule became authoritarian. Anne of Bohemia had died three years earlier in 1394, and this seemingly had a profound effect on Richard. Without his closest confidant, her support, and her unique ability to appease him, the king asserted his royal prerogative with force. After years of biding his time, with the 'Revenge Parliament' of 1397, Richard saw the leading accusers of the Lord's Appellant struck down. Richard FitzAlan, the Earl of Arundel was executed, while his brother Thomas, the Archbishop of Canterbury was exiled, along with Thomas de Beauchamp, the Earl of Warwick. Richard's uncle, Thomas Duke of Gloucester, was arrested and imprisoned in Calais, awaiting trial. He would be murdered before this could take place. Two remaining appellants, Thomas Mowbray, Duke of Norfolk and Henry Bolingbroke, now Duke of Hereford, were pardoned and left unpunished; for the time being. In 1398, a quarrel between the two arose, each accusing the other of involvement in the murder of Gloucester. Richard invited the two to duel, before changing his mind and banishing them both, a scene reproduced with dramatic flair by Shakespeare. Mowbray was banished for life, while Bolingbroke's sentence was commuted to 10 years, with the approval of his father.

The 'Lord's Appellant'

The following year in 1399, comes the catalyst that sparked Richard's demise. John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster passed away after suddenly falling ill. A decision had to made about his vast estates. Richard decided to take the lands for the crown, but with one important caveat; they would remain in his possession until Henry 'sued the same out of the king's hands according to the law of the land'. In other words, it suggested that one day, Henry's lands may one day be restored, to him or to his son, the future Henry V, of whom Richard was fond. But for the meantime, Henry's banishment was extended to life. In Germany, he teamed up with his fellow exile Thomas FitzAlan and amassed forces, returning to England while Richard was in Ireland. By this point, the court was growing tired of Richard's extravagant behaviour and exalted demeanour, and Henry, who had been fairly popular before his exile, gained support amongst the barons. Henry was a warrior, and thus a better candidate for the throne in their eyes. He better fit the bill of a typical medieval king than the peace loving, artistic Richard did.

Delayed in his return from Ireland, Richard made his way to Conwy Castle in north Wales, arriving on August 12th,  and met with the Earl of Northumberland, Henry Percy. The 'official' version of the negotiations at Conwy maintains that Richard freely gave up his crown to his cousin. The 'Record and Process' is the official Lancastrian account of Richard's deposition. According to this, he informed Northumberland that he would 'willingly yield up and renounce his crowns of England and France...on account of his own inability and insuffiency, which he admitted.' The 'Record and Process', Nigel Saul states, is 'purely propagandist', whose 'multiple fictions' have long been held as untrue. Other accounts, some of French origin but the majority of English, tell a different story. Jean Creton's narrative is that Northumberland, speaking on behalf of Bolingbroke, offered Richard peace on three conditions:

1. That Bolingbroke's lands be restored
2. A parliament was summoned over which he would preside as steward
3. That 5 of Richard's councillors; Dukes Exeter and Surrey, the earl of Salisbury, the bishop of Carlisle and Richard Maudeleyn to be put on trial for treason. 

Richard spent a few days considering, and eventually agreed, on the condition that Northumberland swore that Bolingbroke meant 'no deceit'. This was sworn, and the agreement made. The Dieulacres chronicle says much the same; that Northumberland and the Archbishop of Canterbury 'swore on the host that the king would be permitted to retain his royal power and dominion', and the promise that he could 'save his dignity'. Henry, at this stage, apparently has no designs on his cousin's crown. 

Richard, according to Creton, vowed that despite any agreements made, Northumberland would be 'put to bitter death for what he has done to us'. Richard's idea of his own importance appears to be still firmly in place. This time, however, no revenge was to be wrought. At some point, when precisely is hard to say, Henry decided that his lands were not enough, and that he would claim the crown as well. Using a similar method to that used against Edward II and Frederick II, Richard was deemed unfit to rule. Richard was asked to formally renounce his crown, and naturally, resisted. Defiant at first, Richard said he would 'like it explained to him how it was that he should resign the crown, and to whom.' He would be asked several times, eventually offering conditions and requesting to speak with Henry himself. Henry refused, insisting that Richard resign 'simply and without conditions'. After 2 months, Richard was finally pressured to give in. Charged with 33 crimes, Richard's 22 year reign effectively ended on the 29th of September. The parliament that had been summoned earlier that month in his name was dissolved, and another assembled on the 30th in Henry's name. Henry was coronated that October, using an imperial crown according to Froissart, possibly in an attempt to emphasize his right to the throne. This move was not a popular one; many of the nobles rejected his claims as the son of Gaunt, and by right of conquest. Richard was deposed, and informed of his 'unfair sentence' on October 1st.

The Keep at Pontefract Castle

From Conwy Richard was conveyed to Flint, a short distance away, then to Chester, under the care of Gloucester and Arundel, who 'hated him more than anyone' for the deaths of their fathers. He was held in a tiny room, able to see his friend, the duke of Exeter, but unable to speak to him. After a few other movements, Richard was eventually led to the Tower of London by the 1st of September. There he would remain, until the end of October. Therein he was moved to Leeds Castle in Kent, disguised as a forester. From there, around December, he was taken secretly to Henry IV's stronghold of Pontefract, where he could be quietly forgotten, or so Henry hoped. Richard eventually died on 14th February, 1400. Henry faced several rebellions in Richard's name, namely the Epiphany Rising, which involved Richard's half brother John Holland. The plot failed, and those involved were executed. Rumours also spread that the Richard has escaped, and was alive in Stirling in Scotland, disguised as a monk, and later buried at Black Friars. When Richard died, Henry attempted to put those rumours to bed by parading his body from Pontefract to be displayed at St Pauls. On 6th March, a mass was held, afterwards his body was taken to King's Langley, where he was then buried. His body was wrapped in leaden cloth, with only his face exposed. Henry was of course anxious for everyone to know that his predecessor was dead, but not to expose any compromising evidence that may have shown on the king's body. 

Richard's death itself and the manner of it has long been speculated over. The generally accepted theory is that he died of starvation, a method that would leave no mark on his body, likely on Henry's orders. Some suggest that in despair the former king refused food himself, which is a plausible assumption, given his character and tendency for dramatic mood swings. However, it would also be reasonable to assume that Richard, for some time at least, would have expected God to prevail and provide some resolution to his predicament. 

Scharf's sketch of the king's skull

Another theory about his death is that he died during an altercation with Piers Exton, who prevented Richard's steward from tasting his food. Believing that he was being poisoned, Richard flew into a rage and hit him. Exton returned with 8 armed men, and while defending himself, Richard was struck down with a blow to the head. This theory has remained somewhat popular due to its drama, and of course by Shakespeare's play, which portrays Richard's death in a similar manner. However, it can be disproven by detailed sketches of the kings skull, drawn from real life by Sir George Scharf in 1871 when his tomb was opened. The skull shows no such wounds. The location of his imprisonment at Pontefract has also been debated. Most sources suggest that he was held in the keep, in a cramped, dark and damp dungeon. During the Victorian age another idea emerged that he was held within the Gasgogne tower. Later, 'miracles' began to take place at his burial site in Kings Langley. Henry V would eventually move his body to his personally commissioned tomb, as an act of repentance for his father's actions, and as a political move to silence any lingering rumours or unrest. He was given a grand ceremony, as befitted his style in his lifetime, using his will (ominously written before leaving for Ireland) as a rough guide. A hearse was commissioned, decorated with lights. Richard's body was unwrapped and placed in an elm wood coffin, which was led by a procession of bishops, lords and knights to the abbey. Henry himself attended the service, and arranged for tapers to burn at his tomb, for masses to be sung, and for £20 to be given to the poor at the anniversary of his death. 

Richard's tomb in Westminster Abbey shows he and his beloved wife Anne, side by side. Their effigies were once holding hands, but have since been damaged. It lies within the shrine of Edward the Confessor, to whom Richard was devoted, and alongside that of his grandfather Edward III.

Tomb of Richard II and Anne of Bohemia

Sources/Further Reading

Nigel Saul, Richard II
Bryan Bevan, Richard II
The Chronicles of Froissart
Elizabeth Hallam, Chronicles of the Wars of the Roses 
Chris Given-Wilson, Chronicles of the Revolution, 1397-1400: The Reign of Richard II
National Gallery London
Pontefract Museum Research Resources

Æthelflæd, Daughter of a King, Lady of Mercia: A Brief Biography

She was Alfred the Great's eldest daughter; she shared his dream of a united England, and apparently shared his ability as a military tactician and ruler. She proved to be a capable ruler, and a popular one. Born somewhere between her parents marriage in 868 AD, and the birth of her brother Edward c.878 AD, Æthelflæd (Aethelflaed/Ethelflaeda) was the first of five children born to Alfred the Great, King of Wessex, and his wife (notably not queen, but more on that later), Ealhswith. Half Mercian on her mothers side, Æthelflæd would later rule the kingdom of Mercia solely, defeating the Vikings, and earning herself the title of Myrcna hlæfdige, Lady of the Mercians. 

The holy vision: a united England 

Æthelflæd was born into a country ravaged by the Danes, or Vikings. 'Viking' was a verb rather than the name of the people; to go 'viking' was the act of raiding. Many of the Danes were traders, more concerned with settling in rich land that they could farm, than the violent, bloody raids that we think of today, though they did happen. They would sometimes trade their way through the winter, and raid through the summer. Alfred, clinging to a tentative peace deal and facing more raids, decided that the Anglo Saxon kingdoms would need to be united and fortified as one in order to stand against the Danes. He envisioned one England, unified by one religion, and codified by the same laws. Christianity was in its second wave in England, but the relationship with its people was still tumultuous. There had been a brief dalliance with it during the Roman occupation, wherein the richer classes of Britons, in an attempt to identify themselves with the sophisticated, civilised Romans, began to adopt the religion, albeit often in conjunction with their own gods. But soon after the Romans left, the Angles and Saxons arrived, and many Britons returned to their Pagan beliefs. Christian missionaries under Augustine then brought the faith back to them in the 6th century. Wessex became Christian when it's King, Cenwahl, was baptised, and the faith slowly expanded. Though pockets of paganism still persisted, Christianity held on, even through the Viking raids in 871 AD which targeted the holy island of Lindisfarne. The connection between King and God began to develop, and so did the idea of a Christian England. It was Alfred, the Christian King of Wessex, who began to put the idea into motion. 

The unified England of course relied upon alliances between the kingdoms. Part of her father's plan to solidify this was to marry Æthelflæd into Mercia, another powerful kingdom, and one with which Alfred already held ties through his own marriage. And so Æthelflæd married Æthelred, Ealdorman of Mercia. By this point, Alfred had begun calling himself King of the Anglo Saxons, something which Æthelred seems to readily accept. While much of England besides Wessex was held by the Danes, Mercia was under threat from new Northmen; the Norwegians, who had settled in Ireland, and were using it as a base whilst they raided the west coast of England. And so, in 879 AD, Æthelred submitted to 'the Royal will.' To cement this alliance, Æthelflæd was given in marriage to him. Alfred helped Æthelred regain control of London in 886, which he then gave back to him, possibly as part of his daughter's dowry. It is believed that Æthelflæd and Æthelred married around this time, when she would have been aged around 16. According to Asser, Alfred's biographer, they married once Æthelflæd was of appropriate age, implying that they were betrothed earlier while she was still a minor. 

Lady of Mercia

Newly married, Æthelflæd became co-ruler of Mercia alongside her husband. A few years after their wedding, their only child Ælfwynn, a daughter, was born after a difficult labour in around 888 AD. Æthelflæd proved to be a competent leader, working alongside her husband to keep the Danes out of Mercia, reinforcing the northern borders. A camp of Vikings, forced to leave Ireland after an uprising, were permitted to stay outside Chester, until they grew restless, and attempted to attack the city. Æthelflæd resolved to fight back against the Danes, ostensibly outside the city, but it was a trap. The Mercian army appeared to retreat, and the Danes, in pursuit, were lured into the city walls where the rest of the army awaited them. Chester was a powerful northern base, close to the Mercian border, so in 907 AD Æthelflæd saw to it that the old Roman city walls were reinforced. Her husband appears to have had no part in the Chester attack. There is some evidence to suggest that Æthelred, who suffered from illness, may have been incapacitated from as early as 902, meaning Æthelflæd would be responsible for most of the running of the kingdom. He at last succumbed to his illness in 911 AD, leaving his widow as the sole ruler of Mercia. 

Endeared to her people, she soon earned the title 'Lady of the Mercians'. But why lady, and not queen? One theory harks back to her father's reign, and the works of Asser. Her mother Ealhswith was never called queen, but was the first to be dubbed hlæfdige, lady. Asser refers to the story of Eadburh, daughter of Offa and Queen of the West Saxons, who, after marrying the Wessex King Beorhtric, 'began to behave like a tyrant' and '...do all things hateful to God and men.' After her husbands death in 802, she disgraced herself in an affair, and was expelled from the convent to which she had retired. This drove the men of Wessex to refuse to call the king's wife queen, and the tradition apparently stuck. Perhaps being of the House of Wessex, Æthelflæd chose to follow the same tradition, despite ruling Mercia.

After building the fortress at Chester, Æthelflæd expanded her building repertoire, building fortresses throughout Mercia between 912 and 915 AD. Seven of these locations are known to us: Bridgenorth, Stafford, Runcorn, Chirbury, Warwick, Eddisbury, and Tamworth, where a statue of her stands today. After her husband's death, Æthelflæd turned to her brother Eadweard (better known as Edward the Elder), now King of Wessex, who readily offered his support. Like his sister, Eadweard shared his father's ambition for a united England and continued to work toward it, though it would be his son, Æthelstan, who would finally be crowned King of England. The siblings formed a strong partnership, facing the Danes against her allies in Wales and continuing to drive them north. Æthelflæd had gotten York on her side, and was headed there when she died suddenly in 918, in Tamworth. While he allied with his sister, after her death Eadweard replaced his niece as ruler of Mercia, dissolving Mercia into the kingdom of Wessex, a move that seems to have faced little opposition from the Mercians. The young Ælfwynn was exiled, and likely spent rest of her life in a convent. A harsh way to treat your niece, but this was no doubt a step toward the united England they so hoped for. Ælfwynn was likely well educated, tutored at her mother's court alongside her cousin Æthelstan, who's education was praised by William of Malmesbury. However, it appears she lacked the skill and charisma of her mother that made her so popular with the people of Mercia. 

Æthelflæd is buried in Gloucester, another city which she helped fortify. She is laid to rest with her husband in St Oswald's Priory, which the pair established. 

Sources:

http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/history/uk_1.shtml

http://thefreelancehistorywriter.com/2012/07/06/aethelflaed-lady-of-mercia/

The Seven Ages of Britain: the fourth age, 400-1066, Documentary, Bettany Hughes

Æthelflæd: Iron Lady of Mercia, Alex Burghart, BBC History Magazine 

http://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/HistoryofEngland/Aethelflaed-Lady-of-the-Mercians/

Asser's Life of King Alfred, translated and with notes by Simon Keynes, Michael Lapidge, (Penguin Classics, 2003)